Journal: Pharmaceutical Science Advances
Article Title: Mechanisms of tumor cell evasion from NK cell-mediated killing and advances in NK cell-based cancer immunotherapy
doi: 10.1016/j.pscia.2026.100109
Figure Lengend Snippet: Factors influencing the exhausted state of NK cells. The exhaustion of NK cells in the TME is regulated by multiple factors which results in NK cell function impairment due to: the downregulated expression of NK cell-activating receptors (e.g., NKG2D, DNAM-1, NKp30), the reduced secretion of effector cytokines (such as IFN-γ), and the upregulated expression of immunosuppressive molecules (e.g., PD-1, NKG2A, TIGIT, CD96, TIM-3, LAG-3). Additionally, transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) secreted by tumor cells, cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), and extracellular vesicles (EVs); hypoxic microenvironment; indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO); prostaglandin E2 (PGE2); and immunosuppressive cells including macrophages, regulatory T cells (Treg), and myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSC) are involved in regulating NK cell exhaustion through multiple pathways.
Article Snippet: TIM-3 ligands-including Galectin-9, PS, HMGB1, and CEACAM-1-play crucial roles in regulating NK activity.
Techniques: Cell Function Assay, Expressing, Derivative Assay